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Oil and Gas Exploration A variety of technologies are employed in the oil and gas industry to identify oil and gas reserves, to access those reserves, and to extract and deliver the products. The following subsections provide an overview of current technologies employed in oil and gas exploration and drilling. The exploration for oil and gas, which may be quite time- and effort-intensive and rely on the collection and detailed analyses of extensive geologic information, involves a number of activities, including the following: Surveying and mapping surface and subsurface geologic features with techniques such as seismic reflection to identify areas (called hydrocarbon traps) where oil and gas may have accumulated. Determining a geologic formation’s potential for containing commercial quantities of economically producible oil and/or gas. Identifying the best locations to drill an exploratory well to test the hydrocarbon traps. Drilling exploration and delineation wells to determine where hydrocarbons are present and to measure the area and thickness of the oil- and/or gasbearing reservoir or reservoirs. Logging and coring wells to measure the permeability, porosity, and other properties of the geologic formation(s) encountered. Completing construction of wells and site facilities deemed capable of producing commercial quantities of oil and / or gas. While past surveying and mapping activities employed invasive techniques that included explosive seismic profiling and extensive drilling to map and locate potential reservoirs, modern exploration involves the use of non-explosive reflection seismic profiling, together with seismic imaging software and computers, to interpret geological and geophysical data more completely. Reflection seismic profiling transmits acoustic vibrations (seismic waves) underground. As these waves travel through different rock layers, some are reflected backward by the different subsurface layers to an array of receiving (detecting) geophones (or hydrophones, if in water). These reflections off of subsurface layers are then used to generate multidimensional representations of the subsurface. Onshore Seismology In practice, using seismology for exploring onshore areas involves artificially creating seismic waves, the reflections of which are then picked up by sensitive pieces of equipment called geophones embedded in the ground or placed on the ground surface. The data picked up by these geophones are then transmitted to a seismic recording truck that records the data for further interpretation by geophysicists and petroleum reservoir engineers. In the past, seismic waves were created using dynamite. Today, most seismic crews use nonexplosive seismic technology to generate the required data. This nonexplosive technology usually consists of wheeled or tracked vehicles carrying special equipment (a vibrator) designed to create a series of vibrations, which in turn creates seismic waves. Other seismic sources include dropped weights and air guns. Offshore Seismology Offshore seismic exploration is similar to onshore exploration, but rather than trucks and geophones, a ship is used to convey equipment needed to generate the seismic waves and gather the seismic data, and hydrophones are used to pick up seismic waves underwater. The hydrophones are towed behind a ship in various configurations, depending on the needs of the geophysicist. Rather than using dynamite or impacts on the seabed floor, the seismic ship uses a large air gun that releases bursts of compressed air under water to create seismic waves that travel through the earth’s crust and generate the necessary seismic reflections. Exploratory Wells and Logging Once a specific location has been identified as potentially containing oil and/or gas deposits, one or more exploratory wells are drilled to provide information on the composition of the underground rock layers and their geological and geophysical properties. Drilling progresses very gradually, at a speed of a few meters per hour, slowing to just one meter an hour by the time one is down to 3,000 meters below the surface. Snags are encountered from time to time, and the entire drill-string has to be pulled out regularly for a change of drill-bit. An exploratory well takes from three to six months to drill. Four wells out of five, or even six out of seven in pioneer zones, fail to yield commercially viable quantities of oil or gas. Sometimes, though, the drill-bit strikes a hydrocarbon-impregnated rock, in which case the drilling crew conducts extensive well-logging to find out more. Well logging refers to performing tests during or after the drilling process to allow geologists and drill operators to monitor the progress of the well drilling, to gain a clearer picture of subsurface formations, and to identify specific rock layers, in particular those that represent target zones for further exploration. There are many different types of logging; more than 100 different logging tests can be performed to help characterize the composition and characteristics of the different layers of rock through which the well passes. Following interpretation of the logging data, a determination can be made as to whether or not to proceed with the installation of production wells. Logging is also used to monitor the drilling process and to ensure that the correct drilling equipment, materials, and supplies (such as drilling muds), are being used and that drilling is not continued if unfavorable surface or subsurface conditions develop. Two of the most common types of logging are sample and wireline. Sample logging consists of examining and recording the physical aspects of the rock penetrated by a well. Drill cuttings (rock that is displaced by the drilling of the well) and core samples (intact underground rock samples) may be collected from the exploratory well and physically examined to describe the subsurface rock, determine the position and thickness of the various layers of rock, and estimate (with cuttings) or determine (with cores) the porosity and fluid content of the subsurface rock. Wireline logging consists of lowering a device used to measure the electrical, acoustic, or radiological properties of the rock layers into the downhole portion of the well to provide an estimate of the fluid content and characteristics of the various rock layers through which the well passes. Source: wermac

What are Fossil Fuels? Crude oil, natural gas and coal are fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are very precious resources because they are non-renewable (once they’re used, that’s it!). We can also make lots of organic chemicals from them, needed to make products such as paints, detergents, polymers (including plastics), cosmetics and some medicines. Fossil fuels were formed from the fossillized remains of dead plants and animals that once lived millions of years ago. Oil and natural gas are the products of the deep burial and decomposition of dead plants and animals. Heat and pressure, in the absence of oxygen, transform the decomposed material into tiny pockets of gas and crude oil. The oil and gas then migrates through the pores in the rocks to eventually collect in reservoirs. Coal comes mainly from dead plants which have been buried and compacted beneath sediments. Most coal originated as peat in ancient swamps created many millions of years ago. What is Crude Oil? The oil we find underground is called crude oil. Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons – from almost solid to gaseous, with small amounts of other chemicals such as sulphur. These were produced when tiny plants and animals decayed under layers of sand and mud millions of years ago. The crude oil is useless as a mixture and must be sent to an oil refinery to be separated. Crude oils from different parts of the world, or even from different depths in the same oilfield, contain different mixtures of hydrocarbons and other compounds. This is why they vary from light coloured volatile liquids to thick, dark oils. During oil recovery (especially undersea), the crude oil is often mixed with gases, water and sand and it forms an emulsion with the water. The sand will settle out and the water is removed using de-emulsifying agents. They have to be separated from the crude oil before it can be processed ready for transportation. The dissolved gases must be to be removed, otherwise, they might come out of solution and cause a build up of pressure in a pipe or a tanker. The crude oil also contains sulphur. This has to be removed from any fractions that are going to be burnt because it forms sulphur dioxide which contributes to acid rain. So any fractions that go into fuels pass through hydrofiners to remove the sulphur. On the Internet you can find more about Hydrocarbons and Sulphur. What is Natural Gas? Natural gas, in itself, might be considered an uninteresting gas – it is colorless, shapeless, and odorless in its pure form. Quite uninteresting – except that natural gas is combustible, abundant in the United States and when burned it gives off a great deal of energy and few emissions. Unlike other fossil fuels, natural gas is clean burning and emits lower levels of potentially harmful byproducts into the air. We require energy constantly, to heat our homes, cook our food, and generate our electricity. It is this need for energy that has elevated natural gas to such a level of importance in our society, and in our lives. Natural gas is a combustible mixture of hydrocarbon gases. While natural gas is formed primarily of methane, it can also include ethane, propane, butane and pentane. The composition of natural gas can vary widely, but below is a chart outlining the typical makeup of natural gas before it is refined. Typical Composition of Natural Gas MethaneCH470-90%EthaneC2H60-20%PropaneC3H80-20%ButaneC4H100-20%Carbon DioxideCO20-8%OxygenO20-0.2%NitrogenN20-5%Hydrogen sulphideH2S0-5%Rare gasesA, He, Ne, Xetrace What is Coal? Coal is the altered remains of prehistoric vegetation that originally accumulated as plant material in swamp and peat bogs. The accumulation of silt and other sediments, together with tectonic movements in the earth’s crusts buried these swamps and bogs, often to great depth. This subjected the plant material to elevated temperatures and pressures causing physical and chemical changes in the vegetation and transforming it into coal. Initially peat, the precursor of coal, was converted into lignite or brown coal. Over many more millions of years, the continuing effects of temperature and pressure produced more changes in the lignite, progressively increasing its maturity and transforming it into sub-bituminous coals. As further chemical and physical changes occurred these coals became harder and more mature, to be classified as bituminous or hard coals. Under the right conditions, the progressive increase in the organic maturity continued, ultimately to form anthracite. Coal classification depends on the nature of the original vegetation, its biochemical experiences, the length of the coalification process and most importantly the depth that the coal seam was buried. The proportion of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon also decides how a coal will be classified or ranked. Coal can be further analysed by its proportion of moisture, sulphur, volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash and physical properties. Low rank coals, such as lignite and subbituminous coals are typically softer, friable materials with a dull, earthy appearance. They have high moisture levels, a low carbon content and therefore a low energy content. Higher rank coals are typically harder and stronger and often have a black vitreous lustre. Increasing rank is accompanied by a rise in the carbon and energy contents and a decrease in the moisture content of the coal. Large coal deposits only started to be formed after the evolution of land plants in the Devonian period, some 400 million years ago. Significant accumulation of coal occurred during the Carboniferous/Permian period (350-225 million years ago) in the Southern Hemisphere and, more recently, the late Cretaceous period to early Tertiary era (approximately 100-15 million years ago) in areas as perse as the USA, South America, Indonesia and New Zealand. Source:wermac Interesting articles Crude oil or Petroleum? Excerpt from RockTalk volume 8. What is coal?

Petroleum Refining Processes A simple guide to Oil Refining We all know that petroleum fuels and lubricants come from crude oil. What many people do not realise is that crude oil is also the starting point for many perse products such as clothes, medical equipment, electronics, vitamin capsules and tyres. Whether on land or under the ocean, crude oil comes from deep underground where the remains of plants and animals from millions of years ago have been heated and pressurised over time. Generally blackish in color, crude oil has a characteristic odour that comes from the presence of small quantities of chemical compounds containing sulphur and nitrogen. There are many different types of crude oil. Each type has a specific composition that is determined by the original decomposed source materials as well as the properties of the surrounding soil or rock formations. It can be light or heavy, referring to density, and sweet or sour, referring to its sulphur content. However, in its raw state, crude oil is of little use. It must be refined to make it into useable products. Depending on the type of crude oil, it is treated via different refing processes to turn it into fuels, lubricating oils, waxes, chemicals, plastics and many other products used everyday in modern society. The Refining Process Once discovered, drilled and brought to the earth’s surface, crude oil is transported to a refinery by pipeline, ship or both. At the refinery, it is treated and converted into consumer and industrial products. Three major refinery processes change crude oil into finished products: • Separation • Conversion • Purification Separation The first step is to separate the crude oil into its naturally occurring components. This is known as separation and is accomplished by applying heat through a process called “distillation”. Separation is performed in a series of distillation towers, with the bottom product from each tower feeding the next. A furnace in front of each distillation tower heats and partly vapourises the feed stream. The vapour and liquid mixture is then fed into the bottom section of the tower. The feed section is the hottest point in the distillation tower and can reach as much as 400 degrees Celsius. Components that are still liquid at this elevated temperature become the tower’s bottom product. Components that are in vapour form rise up the tower through a series of distillation stages. The temperature decreases as the vapours rise through the tower and the components condense. The “yield” from a distillation tower refers to the relative percentage of each of the separated components, known as product streams. This will vary the characteristics of the crude oil being processed. Because a liquid’s boiling point decreases at lower pressures, the final distillation steps are performed in a vacuum to maximise liquid recovery. Products from the distillation tower range from gases at the top to very heavy, viscous liquids at the bottom. In all cases, these product streams are still considered “unfinished” and require further processing to become useful products. Just as water goes from liquid to vapour at approximately 100°C, each type of hydrocarbon changes from liquid to vapour within a specific temperature range. In general, the more carbons in a molecule, the higher its boiling point. This allows for separation within the distilling process. Light products (light ends): are further separated into propane, normal butane and isobutane (this stream is often referred to as Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and is sold as a cooking and heating fuel or as auto LPG for cars) and noncondensable gases (mostly hydrogen, methane and ethane) that are subsequently treated to remove trace impurities and are often used as fuel within the refinery; “Naphtha”: could be blended into petrol, but is more likely sent to a Catalytic Reforming unit for octane improvement; “Kerosene”: generally treated and used as jet fuel. “Heavier distillate streams”: are also treated and blended into finished diesel fuel or home heating oil or are further processed in conversion units such as Fluidised Catalytic Cracking (FCC) and Hydrocracking. The routing of these streams will vary as product demand changes to either maximise diesel production or petrol production; “Gas oil”: is routed to either FCC or Hydrocracking to be converted into higher value petrol and diesel; “Vacuum tower bottoms (VTB)”: the final bottom product of distillation, which maybe processed in Cokers and upgraded into petrol, diesel and gas oil, or used directly for asphalt (bitumen). Conversion Distillation separates the crude oil into unfinished products. However, the products do not naturally exist in crude in the same proportions as the product mix that consumers demand. The biggest difference is that there is too little petrol and too much heavy oil naturally occurring in crude oil. That is why conversion processes are so important. Their primary purpose is to convert low valued heavy oil into high valued petrol. All products in the refinery are based on the same building blocks, carbon and hydrogen chains, which are called hydrocarbons. The longer the carbon chain, the heavier the product will be. Converting heavier hydrocarbons to lighter hydrocarbons can be compared to cutting a link on a steel chain to make two smaller chains. This is the function of the “Fluidised Catalytic Crackers (FCCs)”, “Cokers” and “Hydrocrackers”. In addition to breaking chains, there are times when we want to change the form of the chain or put chains together. This is where the “Catalytic Reformer” and “Alkylation” are necessary. Specialised catalysts are of critical importance in most of these processes. The FCC is usually the key conversion unit. It uses a catalyst (a material that helps make a chemical reaction go faster, occur at a lower temperature, or control which reactions occur) to convert gas oil into a mix of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), petrol and diesel. The FCC catalyst promotes the reaction that breaks the heavier chains in the right place to make as much petrol as possible. However, even with the catalyst, the reactions require a lot of heat; therefore the FCC reactor operates at about 530 degrees Celsius. The heaviest material in the refinery is Vacuum Tower Bottoms (VTB) or “resid.” If allowed to cool to room temperature, it would become a solid. In Australia resid is sold into the paving asphalt market or used as a blend component in fuel oil. Resid is too heavy and has too many contaminants to process in the FCC. A Delayed Coker can be used to convert this heavy material into more valuable products. The delayed coker uses high temperature to break the hydrocarbon chains. Delayed coking reactions are less selective than FCC reactions. Delayed coking also produces a relatively low valued petroleum coke as a by-product. (Delayed coking is not used in Australian refineries) In some refineries, the FCC and Delayed Cokers are supplemented by Hydrocracking. Similar to the FCC, the Hydrocracker uses high temperature and catalyst to get the desired reactions. In Hydrocracking, the catalyst stays in one place and the gas oil passes over the catalyst, whereas in the FCC the catalyst is much finer and moves together with the gas oil. The catalyst compositions differ. In Hydrocracking, the reactions take place at high temperatures in the presence of high concentrations of hydrogen. The Hydrocracker produces products with low sulphur levels. The light liquid product can be sent directly to Catalytic Reforming and the other liquid products can be blended directly into jet fuel and diesel. The conversion processes that have been discussed up to this point have focused on reducing the length of some hydrocarbon chains. However, there are other hydrocarbon chains that are too short. Butane is produced as a byproduct of other conversion units. The Alkylation Unit (Alky) takes two butanes and combines them into a longer chain using a catalyst. The last conversion process to be discussed is Catalytic Reforming. The purpose of the reformer is to increase the octane number of petrol blend components and to generate hydrogen for use in the refinery hydrotreaters. The same length carbon chains can have very different octane numbers based on the shape of the chain. Straight chains, or paraffins, have a relatively low octane number, while rings, also called aromatics, have high octane numbers. At high temperatures and in the presence of hydrogen, the catalyst will “reform” paraffins into aromatics, thus the name catalytic reforming. Some of the aromatics produced are sent to petrochemical manufacturers, where they are converted to plastics and fabrics. Purification Once crude oil has been through separation and conversion, the resulting products are ready for purification, which is principally sulphur removal. This is done by “Hydrotreating”, a process similar to Hydrocracking but without converting heavy molecules into lighter ones. In Hydrotreating, unfinished products are contacted with hydrogen under heat and high pressure in the presence of a catalyst, producing hydrogen sulphide and desulphurised product. The catalyst accelerates the rate at which the sulphur removal reaction occurs. In each case, sulphur removal is essential to meeting product quality specifications and environmental standards. Other units in the refinery remove sulphur, primarily in the form of hydrogen sulphide, through extraction, which is a second method of purification. Whether through hydrotreatment or extraction, desulphurization produces hydrogen sulphide. Sulphur recovery converts hydrogen sulphide to elemental sulphur and water. The residual sulphur is sold as a refinery byproduct. End Products Modern refinery and petrochemical technology can transform crude oil into literally thousands of useful products. From powering our cars and heating our homes, to supplying petrochemical feedstocks for producing plastics and medicines, crude oil is an essential part of our daily lives. It is a key ingredient in making thousands of products that make our lives easier – and in many cases – help us live better and longer lives. Oil does a lot more than simply provide fuels for our cars and trucks, keep our homes and offices comfortable, and power our industries. From lipstick to aspirin to roller blades, petrochemicals play a vital part. Hera are a few examples of products made from petrochemicals: Antiseptics Golf Balls Aspirin House Paint Baby Strollers Jet Fuel Balloons Medical Equipment Cameras Motor Oil Perfumes CD Players Photographs Clothing Roller Blades Compact Discs Shampoo Deodorant Sunglasses Disposable Nappies Telephones DVDs Tyres Toothpaste Petrol Toys Garbage Bags Umbrellas Glue Vitamin Capsules Reference(s): ExxonMobil Australia Pty Ltd (www.exxonmobil.com.au)

The End of the Oil Age? “The world we know is like the Titanic. It is grand, chic, high-powered, and it slips effortless through a frigid sea of icebergs. It does not have enough lifeboats, and those that it has will be poorly employed. If we do not change course, disaster, perhaps catastrophe, is almost inevitable. There is a reason why interest in the Titanic has been revived; it’s the perfect metaphor for our planet. On some level we know: we are on the Titanic. We just don’t know we’ve been hit.” John Brandenburg (Dead Mars, Dying Earth) In recent years a lot has changed in terms of oil industry, and alternatives to fossil fuels. Should we be scared?. Should we change our behavior?. Should we move to other energy sources, and if yes, when we do that?. When there is more demand than supply for fossil fuels?. Questions, questions, questions… This website can not answer that questions, so we have collected some interesting articles that maybe answer your questions. The oil age is over. Crude oil – the supply outlook. Crude oil – facing the end of the oil age. Plugged in – the end of the oil age. The end of the oil age – 2011 and beyond: a reality check. This website has no political character and is not designed to criticize multinational corporations, governments and other institutions that have an interest in “fossils to fuel”. Therefore this website would only say: Yes there is alternative energy, and this “new” energy must be applied worldwide, long before the oil age is over. Source:wermac

Current Crude Oil prices West Texas Intermediate (WTI) West Texas Intermediate, the US benchmark crude oil, is a light, sweet crude oil with an API gravity of approximately 40 and a sulfur content of approximately 0.3%. The spot price of West Texas Intermediate is reported at Cushing, Oklahoma. WTI Crude Oil$49.33▼-0.15 -0.30%2016.05.30 end-of-day Brent Crude Oil$49.32▼-0.27 -0.55%2016.05.30 end-of-day Brent Blend Brent Blend is a light, sweet North Sea crude with an API gravity of approximately 38 and a sulfur content of approximately 0.4%. Most Brent Blend is refined in Northwestern Europe, but significant volumes are also shipped to the US and Mediterranean countries. Brent Blend is used for pricing around two-thirds of the crude traded internationally. Rolling price assessments are based on physical Brent-Forties-Oseberg crude oil cargoes loading not less than 10 days ahead and loaded free on board at the named port of shipment (Brent Dated).

Facts from the Oil Industry Types of crude oil Crude oil quality is measured in terms of density (light to heavy) and sulfur content (sweet to sour). Density is classified by the American Petroleum Institute (API). API gravity is defined based on density at a temperature of 15.6 °C. The higher the API gravity, the lighter the crude. Light crude generally has an API gravity of 38 degrees or more, and heavy crude an API gravity of 22 degrees or less. Crude with an API gravity between 22 and 38 degrees is generally referred as medium crude. Sweet crude is commonly defined as oil with a sulfur content of less than 0.5%, while sour crude has a sulfur content of greater than 0.5%. Brent Blend Brent Blend is a light, sweet North Sea crude with an API gravity of approximately 38 and a sulfur content of approximately 0.4%. Most Brent Blend is refined in Northwestern Europe, but significant volumes are also shipped to the US and Mediterranean countries. Brent Blend is used for pricing around two-thirds of the crude traded internationally. Rolling price assessments are based on physical Brent-Forties-Oseberg crude oil cargoes loading not less than 10 days ahead and loaded free on board at the named port of shipment (Brent Dated). Russian Export Blend Russian Export Blend, the Russian benchmark crude, is a mixture of several crude grades used domestically or sent for export. Russian Export Blend is a medium, sour crude oil with an API gravity of approximately 32 and a sulfur content of approximately 1.2%. Its spot price is reported at Augusta, Italy, and Rotterdam, the Netherlands, which act as the two primary delivery points. West Texas Intermediate West Texas Intermediate, the US benchmark crude oil, is a light, sweet crude oil with an API gravity of approximately 40 and a sulfur content of approximately 0.3%. The spot price of West Texas Intermediate is reported at Cushing, Oklahoma. Impact on refining The quality of crude oil and other feedstocks dictates the level of processing and conversion necessary to achieve what a refiner sees as an optimal mix of products. Light, sweet crude is more expensive than heavier, sourer crude because it requires less processing and produces a slate of products with a greater percentage of value-added products, such as gasoline, diesel, and aviation fuel. Heavier, sourer crude typically sells at a discount to lighter, sweeter grades because it produces a greater percentage of lower value-added products with simple distillation and requires additional processing to produce lighter products. Barrel of crude oil The standard oil barrel of 42 US gallons is used in the United States as a measure of crude oil and other petroleum products. Elsewhere, oil is commonly measured in cubic metres (m³) or in tonnes (t), with tonnes more often being used by European oil companies. A barrel of oil is defined as: 42 American (US) gallons 158.9873 liters 34.9726 Imperial (UK) gallons 5.6146 cubic feet 0.15899 cubic metre 3.78541 cubic decimeters (dm³) 0.136 tonne (approx) The measurement originated in the early Pennsylvania oil fields. In the early 1860s, when oil production began, there was no standard container for oil, so oil and petroleum products were stored and transported in barrels. International companies listed on American stock exchanges tend to express their oil production volumes in barrels for global reporting purposes, and those listed on European exchanges tend to express their production in tonnes. There can be 6 to 8 barrels of oil in a ton, depending on density. For example: 256 U.S. gallons of heavy distillate per ton, 272 gallons of crude oil per ton, and 333 gallons of gasoline per ton. Crude Oil Futures are quoted in dollars and cents per barrel. Minimum Price Fluctuation: $0.01 (1c/) per barrel ($10 per contract). Maximum Daily Price Fluctuation Futures: Initial limits of $3.00 per barrel are in place in all but the first two months and rise to $6.00 per barrel if the previous days settlement price in any back month is at the $3.00 limit. In the event of a $7.50 per barrel move in either of the first two contract months, limits on all months become $7.50 per barrel from the limit in place in the direction of the move following a one-hour trading halt. The abbreviation for a barrel of oil is “bbl“. Seems logical, or not?. There are many stories on the Internet that try to explain this abbreviation…not on this site. Glossary Absorption The disappearance of one substance into another so that the absorbed substance loses its identifying characteristics, while the absorbing substance retains most of its original physical aspects. Used in refiningto selectively remove specific components from process streams. Acid treatment A process in which unfinished petroleum products such as gasoline, kerosene, and lubricating oil stocks are treated with sulfuric acid to improve color, odor, and other properties. Additive Chemicals added to petroleum products in small amounts to improve quality or add special characteristics. Adsorption Adhesion of the molecules of gases or liquids to the surface of solid materials. Alicyclic hydrocarbons Cyclic (ringed) hydrocarbons in which the rings are made up only of carbon atoms. Aliphatic hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons characterized by open-chain structures: ethane, butane, butene, acetylene, etc. Alkylation A process using sulfuric or hydrofluoric acid as a catalyst to combine olefins (usually butylene) and isobutane to produce a high-octane product known as alkylate. API gravity An arbitrary scale expressing the density of petroleum products. Aromatic Organic compounds with one or more benzene rings. Asphaltenes The asphalt compounds soluble in carbon disulfide but insoluble in paraffin naphthas. Atmospheric tower A distillation unit operated at atmospheric pressure. Benzene An unsaturated, six-carbon ring, basic aromatic compound. Blending The process of mixing two or more petroleum products with different properties to produce a finished product with desired characteristics. Blowdown The removal of hydrocarbons from a process unit, vessel, or line on a scheduled or emergency basis by the use of pressure through special piping and drums provided for this purpose. Blower Equipment for moving large volumes of gas against low-pressure heads. Boiling range The range of temperature (usually at atmospheric pressure) at which the boiling (or distillation) of a hydrocarbon liquid commences, proceeds, and finishes. Bottoms Tower bottoms are residue remaining in a distillation unit after the highest boiling-point material to be distilled has been removed. Tank bottoms are the heavy materials that accumulate in the bottom of storage tanks, usually comprised of oil, water, and foreign matter. Bubble tower A fractionating (distillation) tower in which the rising vapors pass through layers of condensate, bubbling under caps on a series of plates. Catalyst A material that aids or promotes a chemical reaction between other substances but does not react itself. Catalysts increase reaction speeds and can provide control by increasing desirable reactions and decreasingundesirable reactions. Catalytic cracking The process of breaking up heavier hydrocarbon molecules into lighter hydrocarbon fractions by use of heat and catalysts. Caustic wash A process in which distillate is treated with sodium hydroxide to remove acidic contaminants that contribute to poor odor and stability. CHD unit See Hydrodesulfurization. Coke A high carbon-content residue remaining from the destructive distillation of petroleum residue. Coking A process for thermally converting and upgrading heavy residual into lighter products and by-product petroleum coke. Coking also is the removal of all lighter distillable hydrocarbons that leaves a residue of carbonin the bottom of units or as buildup or deposits on equipment and catalysts. Condensate The liquid hydrocarbon resulting from cooling vapors. Condenser A heat-transfer device that cools and condenses vapor by removing heat via a cooler medium such as water or lower-temperature hydrocarbon streams. Condenser reflux Condensate that is returned to the original unit to assist in giving increased conversion or recovery. Cooler A Heat Exchanger in which hot liquid hydrocarbon is passed through pipes immersed in cool water to lower its temperature. Cracking The breaking up of heavy molecular weight hydrocarbons into lighter hydrocarbon molecules by the application of heat and pressure, with or without the use of catalysts. Crude assay A procedure for determining the general distillation and quality characteristics of crude oil. Crude oil A naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons that usually includes small quantities of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen derivatives of hydrocarbons as well as trace metals. Cycle gas oil Cracked gas oil returned to a cracking unit. Deasphalting Process of removing asphaltic materials from reduced crude using liquid propane to dissolve nonasphaltic compounds. Debutanizer A fractionating column used to remove butane and lighter components from liquid streams. De-ethanizer A fractionating column designed to remove ethane and gases from heavier hydrocarbons. Dehydrogenation A reaction in which hydrogen atoms are eliminated from a molecule. Dehydrogenation is used to convert ethane, propane, and butane into olefins (ethylene, propylene, and butenes). Depentanizer A fractionating column used to remove pentane and lighter fractions from hydrocarbon streams. Depropanizer A fractionating column for removing propane and lighter components from liquid streams. Desalting Removal of mineral salts (most chlorides, e.g., magnesium chloride and sodium chloride) from crude oil. Desulfurization A chemical treatment to remove sulfur or sulfur compounds from hydrocarbons. Dewaxing The removal of wax from petroleum products (usually lubricating oils and distillate fuels) by solvent absorption, chilling, and filtering. Diethanolamine A chemical (C4H11O2N) used to remove H2S from gas streams. Distillate The products of distillation formed by condensing vapors. Downflow Process in which the hydrocarbon stream flows from top to bottom. Dry gas Natural gas with so little natural gas liquids that it is nearly all methane with some ethane. Feedstock Stock from which material is taken to be fed (charged) into a processing unit. Flashing The process in which a heated oil under pressure is suddenly vaporized in a tower by reducing pressure. Flash point Lowest temperature at which a petroleum product will give off sufficient vapor so that the vapor-air mixture above the surface of the liquid will propagate a flame away from the source of ignition. Flux Lighter petroleum used to fluidize heavier residual so that it can be pumped. Fouling Accumulation of deposits in condensers, exchangers, etc. Fraction One of the portions of fractional distillation having a restricted boiling range. Fractionating column Process unit that separates various fractions of petroleum by simple distillation, with the column tapped at various levels to separate and remove fractions their boiling ranges. Fuel gas Refinery gas used for heating. Gas oil Middle-distillate petroleum fraction with a boiling range of about 350°-750° F, usually includes diesel fuel, kerosene, heating oil, and light fuel oil. Gasoline A blend of naphthas and other refinery products with sufficiently high octane and other desirable characteristics to be suitable for use as fuel in internal combustion engines. Header A manifold that distributes fluid from a series of smaller pipes or conduits. Heat As used in the Health Considerations paragraphs of this document, heat refers to thermal burns for contact with hot surfaces, hot liquids and vapors, steam, etc. High-line or high-pressure gas High-pressure (100 psi) gas from cracking unit distillate drums that is compressed and combined with low-line gas as gas absorption feedstock. Hydrocracking A process used to convert heavier feedstock into lower-boiling, higher-value products. The process employs high pressure, high temperature, a catalyst, and hydrogen. Hydrodesulfurization A catalytic process in which the principal purpose is to remove sulfur from petroleum fractions in the presence of hydrogen. Hydrofinishing A catalytic treating process carried out in the presence of hydrogen to improve the properties of low viscosity-index naphthenic and medium viscosity-index naphthenic oils. It is also applied to paraffin waxesand microcrystalline waxes for the removal of undesirable components. This process consumes hydrogen and is used in lieu of acid treating. Hydroforming Catalytic reforming of naphtha at elevated temperatures and moderate pressures in the presence of hydrogen to form high-octane BTX aromatics for motor fuel or chemical manufacture. This process results in a netproduction of hydrogen and has rendered thermal reforming somewhat obsolete. It represents the total effect of numerous simultaneous reactions such as cracking, polymerization, dehydrogenation, and isomerization. Hydrogenation The chemical addition of hydrogen to a material in the presence of a catalyst. Inhibitor Additive used to prevent or retard undesirable changes in the quality of the product, or in the condition of the equipment in which the product is used. Isomerization A reaction that catalytically converts straight-chain hydrocarbon molecules into branched-chain molecules of substantially higher octane number. The reaction rearranges the carbon skeleton of a molecule withoutadding or removing anything from the original material. Iso-octane A hydrocarbon molecule (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) with excellent antiknock characteristics on which the octane number of 100 is based. Knockout drum A vessel wherein suspended liquid is separated from gas or vapor. Lean oil Absorbent oil fed to absorption towers in which gas is to be stripped. After absorbing the heavy ends from the gas, it becomes fat oil. When the heavy ends are subsequently stripped, the solvent again becomes leanoil. Low-line or LOW-PRESSURE GAS Low-pressure (5 psi) gas from atmospheric and vacuum distillation recovery systems that is collected in the gas plant for compression to higher pressures. Naphtha A general term used for low boiling hydrocarbon fractions that are a major component of gasoline. Aliphatic naphtha refers to those naphthas containing less than 0.1% benzene and with carbon numbers from C3 through C16. Aromatic naphthas have carbon numbers from C6 through C16 and contain significant quantities of aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene (>0.1%), toluene, and xylene. Naphthenes Hydrocarbons (cycloalkanes) with the general formula CnH2n, in which the carbon atoms are arranged to form a ring. Octane number A number indicating the relative antiknock characteristics of gasoline. Olefins A family of unsaturated hydrocarbons with one carbon-carbon double bond and the general formula CnH2n. Paraffins A family of saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons (alkanes) with the general formula CnH2n+2. Polyforming The thermal conversion of naphtha and gas oils into high-quality gasoline at high temperatures and pressure in the presence of recirculated hydrocarbon gases. Polymerization The process of combining two or more unsaturated organic molecules to form a single (heavier) molecule with the same elements in the same proportions as in the original molecule. Preheater Exchanger used to heat hydrocarbons before they are fed to a unit. Pyrolysis gasoline A by-product from the manufacture of ethylene by steam cracking of hydrocarbon fractions such as naphtha or gas oil. Pyrophoric iron sulfide A substance typically formed inside tanks and processing units by the corrosive interaction of sulfur compounds in the hydrocarbons and the iron and steel in the equipment. On exposure to air (oxygen) it ignites spontaneously. Quench oil Oil injected into a product leaving a cracking or reforming heater to lower the temperature and stop the cracking process. Raffinate The product resulting from a solvent extraction process and consisting mainly of those components that are least soluble in the solvents. The product recovered from an extraction process is relatively free of aromatics, naphthenes, and other constituents that adversely affect physical parameters. Reactor The vessel in which chemical reactions take place during a chemical conversion type of process. Reboiler An auxiliary unit of a fractionating tower designed to supply additional heat to the lower portion of the tower. Recycle gas High hydrogen-content gas returned to a unit for reprocessing. Reduced crude A residual product remaining after the removal by distillation of an appreciable quantity of the more volatile components of crude oil. Reflux The portion of the distillate returned to the fractionating column to assist in attaining better separation into desired fractions. Reformate An upgraded naphtha resulting from catalytic or thermal reforming. Reforming The thermal or catalytic conversion of petroleum naphtha into more volatile products of higher octane number. It represents the total effect of numerous simultaneous reactions such as cracking, polymerization, dehydrogenation, and isomerization. Regeneration In a catalytic process the reactivation of the catalyst, sometimes done by burning off the coke deposits under carefully controlled conditions of temperature and oxygen content of the regeneration gas stream. Scrubbing Purification of a gas or liquid by washing it in a tower. Solvent extraction The separation of materials of different chemical types and solubilities by selective solvent action. Sour gas Natural gas that contains corrosive, sulfur-bearing compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans. Stabilization A process for separating the gaseous and more volatile liquid hydrocarbons from crude petroleum or gasoline and leaving a stable (less-volatile) liquid so that it can be handled or stored with less change incomposition. Straight-run gasoline Gasoline produced by the primary distillation of crude oil. It contains no cracked, polymerized, alkylated, reformed, or visbroken stock. Stripping The removal (by steam-induced vaporization or flash evaporation) of the more volatile components from a cut or fraction. Sulfuric acid treating A refining process in which unfinished petroleum products such as gasoline, kerosene, and lubricating oil stocks are treated with sulfuric acid to improve their color, odor, and other characteristics. Sulfurization Combining sulfur compounds with petroleum lubricants. Sweetening Processes that either remove obnoxious sulfur compounds (primarily hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, and thiophens) from petroleum fractions or streams, or convert them, as in the case of mercaptans, to odorless disulfides to improve odor, color, and oxidation stability. Switch loading The loading of a high static-charge retaining hydrocarbon (i.e., diesel fuel) into a tank truck, tank car, or other vessel that has previously contained a low-flash hydrocarbon (gasoline) and may contain a flammablemixture of vapor and air. Tail gas The lightest hydrocarbon gas released from a refining process. Thermal cracking The breaking up of heavy oil molecules into lighter fractions by the use of high temperature without the aid of catalysts. Vacuum distillation The distillation of petroleum under vacuum which reduces the boiling temperature sufficiently to prevent cracking or decomposition of the feedstock. Vapor The gaseous phase of a substance that is a liquid at normal temperature and pressure. Visbreaking Viscosity breaking is a low-temperature cracking process used to reduce the viscosity or pour point of straight-run residuum. Wet gas A gas containing a relatively high proportion of hydrocarbons that are recoverable as liquids.

Common use of the reducing tee prone to each big industry, and in each big industry plays a very major influence, and occupied the very major position. Reducing tee in the temporary differences of category constantly promoted and used in common. So reducing tee has what characteristics? At the same time its use what size? Let us together to stop the understanding and study: Reducing tee choose different kind of material made of dispute, the output of different kind of specifications and types of dispute, according to the standard of disambiguation kind of dispute stop production, to ensure that the output to disambiguation kind of dispute in the profession and the reducing tee box. The following is a detailed introduced about reducing tee characteristics: 1, reducing tee is belong to green building materials, has the characteristics of clean, non-toxic, can be used for pure water, drinking water pipeline system. 2, can avoid the pipeline corrosion of basin, bathtub, macular rust sorrow can discharge pipeline corrupt scale of infarction, decay resistance, not fouling characteristics. 3, reducing tee has the characteristics of low temperature, high pressure resistance, the pipeline water temperature up to 95 ℃. 4, heat preservation and heat insulation functions of reducing tee particularly strong cockiness, coefficient of thermal conductivity is only one over two hundred of metal pipeline, used for hot water pipeline heat preservation and heat insulation effects. 5, reducing tee is very light, the quality of the proportion was only one 7 of metal pipeline, at the same time its appearance is very beautiful indecent, its inner surface is very smooth, very soft luster. In addition, the reducing tee device is convenient and quick, choose hot melt connection, few seconds over, safe reliable. Reducing tee practical scale wide, size from small to several millimeters, big to a few meters, from high vacuum to high pressure can be applied. The ball turn 90 degrees, in into, exit should appear all spherical, and then cut off the movement. Three-way ball valve is a kind of old ball valves, mutatis mutandis, the category, it has itself unique to plan some advantages, such as switch without conflict, the seal is not easy to wear and open-close torque is small. Reduce the specification of performance of the device for such as license. With multiple inversion electric performance of the organization, can be completed for the relief of medium and regard to close off. The following content is introduced about reducing tee detailed practical size: 1, the reducing tee can be used in the hot and cold water pipeline system to live; 2, industrial water and chemical materials transportation and emissions can also take a reducing tee; 3, about the pure water, drinking water pipeline strange can also be applied reducing tee. 4, beverage and drug consumption conveying system can also be applied reducing tee.

Transportation and Storage of Crude Oil and Natural Gas Before the refining process can take place, first the crude oil must be transported to a refinery. It is generally the case that all crude oils, natural gas, liquefied natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and petroleum products flow through pipelines at some time in their migration from the well to a refinery or gas plant, then to a terminal and eventually to the consumer. Aboveground, underwater and underground pipelines, varying in size from several centimetres to a metre or more in diameter, move vast amounts of crude oil, natural gas, LHGs and liquid petroleum products. Pipelines run throughout the world, from the frozen tundra of Alaska and Siberia to the hot deserts of the Middle East, across rivers, lakes, seas, swamps and forests, over and through mountains and under cities and towns. Although the initial construction of pipelines is difficult and expensive, once they are built, properly maintained and operated, they provide one of the safest and most economical means of transporting these products. The first successful crude-oil pipeline, a 5-cm-diameter wrought iron pipe 9 km long with a capacity of about 800 barrels a day, was opened in Pennsylvania (US) in 1865. Today, crude oil, compressed natural gas and liquid petroleum products are moved long distances through pipelines at speeds from 5.5 to 9 km per hour by large pumps or compressors located along the route of the pipeline at intervals ranging from 90 km to over 270 km. The distance between pumping or compressor stations is determined by the pump capacity, viscosity of the product, size of the pipeline and the type of terrain crossed. Regardless of these factors, pipeline pumping pressures and flow rates are controlled throughout the system to maintain a constant movement of product within the pipeline. Marine Tankers and Barges The majority of the world’s crude oil is transported by tankers from producing areas such as the Middle East and Africa to refineries in consumer areas such as Europe, Japan and the United States. Oil products were originally transported in large barrels on cargo ships. The first tanker ship, which was built in 1886, carried about 2,300 SDWT (2,240 pounds per ton) of oil. Today’s supertankers can be over 300 m long and carry almost 200 times as much oil (see image below). Gathering and feeder pipelines often end at marine terminals or offshore platform loading facilities, where the crude oil is loaded into tankers or barges for transport to crude trunk pipelines or refineries. Petroleum products also are transported from refineries to distribution terminals by tanker and barge. After delivering their cargoes, the vessels return in ballast to loading facilities to repeat the sequence. Oil tankers and barges are vessels designed with the engines and quarters at the rear of the vessel and the remainder of the vessel pided into special compartments (tanks) to carry crude oil and liquid petroleum products in bulk. Cargo pumps are located in pump rooms, and forced ventilation and inerting systems are provided to reduce the risk of fires and explosions in pump rooms and cargo compartments. Modern oil tankers and barges are built with double hulls and other protective and safety features required by the United States Oil Pollution Act of 1990 and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) tanker safety standards. Some new ship designs extend double hulls up the sides of the tankers to provide additional protection. Generally, large tankers carry crude oil and small tankers and barges carry petroleum products. Supertankers Ultra-large and very large crude carriers (ULCCs and VLCCs) are restricted by their size and draft to specific routes of travel. ULCCs are vessels whose capacity is over 300,000 SDWTs, and VLCCs have capacities ranging from 160,000 to 300,000 SDWTs. Most large crude carriers are not owned by oil companies, but are chartered from transportation companies which specialize in operating these super-sized vessels. Oil tankers Oil tankers are smaller than VLCCs, and, in addition to ocean travel, they can navigate restricted passages such as the Suez and Panama Canals, shallow coastal waters and estuaries. Large oil tankers, which range from 25,000 to 160,000 SDWTs, usually carry crude oil or heavy residual products. Smaller oil tankers, under 25,000 SDWT, usually carry gasoline, fuel oils and lubricants. Barges Barges operate mainly in coastal and inland waterways and rivers, alone or in groups of two or more, and are either self-propelled or moved by tugboat. They may carry crude oil to refineries, but more often are used as an inexpensive means of transporting petroleum products from refineries to distribution terminals. Barges are also used to off-load cargo from tankers offshore whose draft or size does not allow them to come to the dock. LNG and LPG marine vessels Liquefied natural gas is shipped as a cryogenic gas in specialized marine vessels with heavily insulated compartments or reservoirs (see image below). At the delivery port, the LNG is off-loaded to storage facilities or regasification plants. Liquefied petroleum gas may be shipped both as a liquid in uninsulated marine vessels and barges and as a cryogenic in insulated marine vessels. Additionally, LPG in containers (bottled gas) may be shipped as cargo on marine vessels and barges. The three types of marine vessels used for transport of LPG and LNG are: vessels with reservoirs pressurized up to 2 mPa (LPG only) vessels with heat-insulated reservoirs and a reduced pressure of 0.3 to 0.6 mPa (LPG only) cryogenic vessels with heat-insulated reservoirs pressurized close to atmospheric pressure (LPG and LNG) Shipment of LHGs on marine vessels requires constant safety awareness. Transfer hoses must be suitable for the correct temperatures and pressures of the LHGs being handled. To prevent a flammable mixture of gas vapour and air, inert gas (nitrogen) blanketing is provided around reservoirs, and the area is continually monitored to detect leaks. Before loading, storage reservoirs should be inspected to ensure that they are free of contaminants. If reservoirs contain inert gas or air, they should be purged with LHG vapour prior to loading the LHG. Reservoirs should be constantly inspected to ensure integrity, and safety Valves should be installed to relieve the LHG vapour generated at maximum heat load. Marine vessels are provided with fire suppression systems and have comprehensive emergency response procedures in place. Aboveground Tank Storage of Liquid Petroleum Products Crude oil, gas, LNG and LPG, processing additives, chemicals and petroleum products are stored in aboveground and underground atmospheric (non-pressure) and pressure storage tanks. Storage tanks are located at the ends of feeder lines and gathering lines, along truck pipelines, at marine loading and unloading facilities and in refineries, terminals and bulk plants. This section covers aboveground atmospheric storage tanks in refinery, terminal and bulk plant tank farms. (Information concerning aboveground pressure tanks is covered below, and information concerning underground tanks and small aboveground tanks is in the article %quot;Motor vehicle fuelling and servicing operations”.) Terminals and bulk plants Terminals are storage facilities which generally receive crude oil and petroleum products by trunk pipeline or marine vessel. Terminals store and redistribute crude oil and petroleum products to refineries, other terminals, bulk plants, service stations and consumers by pipelines, marine vessels, railroad tank cars and tank trucks. Terminals may be owned and operated by oil companies, pipeline companies, independent terminal operators, large industrial or commercial consumers or petroleum product distributors. Bulk plants are usually smaller than terminals and typically receive petroleum products by rail tank car or tank truck, normally from terminals but occasionally direct from refineries. Bulk plants store and redistribute products to service stations and consumers by tank truck or tank wagon (small tank trucks of approximately 9,500 to 1,900 l capacity). Bulk plants may be operated by oil companies, distributors or independent owners. Tank farms Tank farms are groupings of storage tanks at producing fields, refineries, marine, pipeline and distribution terminals and bulk plants which store crude oil and petroleum products. Within tank farms, inpidual tanks or groups of two or more tanks are usually surrounded by enclosures called berms, dykes or fire walls. These tank farm enclosures may vary in construction and height, from 45-cm earth berms around piping and pumps inside dykes to concrete walls that are taller than the tanks they surround. Dykes may be built of earth, clay or other materials; they are covered with gravel, limestone or sea shells to control erosion; they vary in height and are wide enough for vehicles to drive along the top. The primary functions of these enclosures are to contain, direct and pert rain water, physically separate tanks to prevent the spread of fire in one area to another, and to contain a spill, release, leak or overflow from a tank, pump or pipe within the area. Dyke enclosures may be required by regulation or company policy to be sized and maintained to hold a specific amount of product. For example, a dyke enclosure may need to contain at least 110% of the capacity of the largest tank therein, allowing for the volume displaced by the other tanks and the amount of product remaining in the largest tank after hydrostatic equilibrium is reached. Dyke enclosures may also be required to be constructed with impervious clay or plastic liners to prevent spilled or released product from contaminating soil or groundwater. Storage tanks There are a number of different types of vertical and horizontal aboveground atmospheric and pressure storage tanks in tank farms, which contain crude oil, petroleum feedstocks, intermediate stocks or finished petroleum products. Their size, shape, design, configuration, and operation depend on the amount and type of products stored and company or regulatory requirements. Aboveground vertical tanks may be provided with double bottoms to prevent leakage onto the ground and cathodic protection to minimize corrosion. Horizontal tanks may be constructed with double walls or placed in vaults to contain any leakage. Primafuel, Tank Farm source: wermac

What is Pipe Schedule? As the main function of the pipes is to carry fluid under pressure therefore their internal diameter is their critical dimension. This critical dimension is referred to as the nominal bore (NB). Obviously, for pipes containing pressurised fluids the wall thickness, and by implication the pipe’s strength, is important. Wall thickness is expressed in “schedules“, referred to as pipe schedules. The pipe schedule is abbreviated as SCH. For a given size and schedule the thickness of the pipe is fixed and defined in the applicable ASME standard. Other than the pipe schedule, pipe thickness can also be specified in mm orinches to the value corresponding to that specified in the ASME standard. What Standards Govern Pipe Sizes? In the oil and gas and related downstream industries the most common standards are – ASME/ANSI B 36.10 Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe, and – ASME/ANSI B36.19 Stainless Steel Pipe Does Pipe Schedule Change with Pipe Size? For all pipe sizes the outside diameter remains relatively constant. Therefore any variation schedule i.e. wall thickness, affects only the inside diameter. As the schedule number increases, the wall thickness increases, and the actual bore is reduced. STD is identical to SCH 40 for NPS 1/8 to NPS 10, inclusive. XS is identical to SCH 80 for NPS 1/8 to NPS 8, inclusive. XXS wall is thicker than SCH 160 from NPS 1/8″ to NPS 6″ inclusive, and SCH 160 is thicker than XXS wall for NPS 8″ and larger. Pipe Schedule Charts The wall thickness associated with a particular schedule depends on the pipe size as can be seen from the charts below for some of the more common sized carbon steel pipes encountered. Stainless steel pipe is most often available in standard weight sizes (noted by the “S” designation, for example “NPS SCH 10S”). However stainless steel pipe can also be available in other schedules. Abbreviations used: NPS– Nominal Pipe Size, NB – Nominal bore, STD – Standard, XS – Extra Strong, XXS – Double Extra Strong. NPS inches N.B. O.D. mm 10 20 30 STD 40 60 XS 80 100 120 140 160 XXS 1/8 6 10.3 1.24 – 1.45 1.73 1.73 – 2.41 2.41 – – – – – 1/4 8 13.7 1.65 – 1.85 2.24 2.24 – 3.02 3.02 – – – – – 3/8 10 17.1 1.65 – 1.85 2.31 2.31 – 3.2 3.2 – – – – – 1/2 15 21.34 2.11 – 2.41 2.77 2.77 – 3.73 3.73 – – – 4.77 7.47 3/4 20 26.67 2.11 – 2.41 2.87 2.87 – 3.91 3.91 – – – 5.56 7.82 1 25 33.4 2.77 – 2.90 3.38 3.38 – 4.55 4.55 – – – 6.35 9.09 1.1/4 32 42.16 2.77 – 2.97 3.56 3.56 – 4.85 4.85 – – – 6.35 9.7 1.1/2 40 48.26 2.77 – 3.18 3.68 3.68 – 5.08 5.08 – – – 7.14 10.16 2 50 60.32 2.77 – 3.18 3.91 3.91 – 5.54 5.54 – – – 8.74 11.07 2.1/2 65 73.02 3.05 – 4.78 5.16 5.16 – 7.01 7.01 – – – 9.52 14.02 3 80 88.9 3.05 – 4.78 5.49 5.49 – 7.62 7.62 – – – 11.12 15.24 3.1/2 90 101.6 3.05 – 4.78 5.74 5.74 – 8.08 8.08 – – – – 16.15 4 100 114.3 3.05 – 4.78 6.02 6.02 – 8.56 8.56 – 11.12 – 13.49 17.12 Source: piping-engineering.com

Dimensions, wall thickness and weights of stainless steel pipes according to ASME B36.19 Stainless Steel Pipe Stainless steel pipes are used in constructions, food industry, pharmaceutical industry, petrochemical industry, automotive industry, municipal and decorative purposes. Range of Stainless Steel pipes according to ANSI/ASME 36.19M – Stainless Steel Pipe. Nominal Pipe Size (inches)Outside DiameterSchedule5S10S40S80S(mm)(inches)Wall Thickness and Weightmm (in)kg/mmm (in)kg/mmm (in)kg/mmm (in)kg/m1/810.30.405––1.25 (0.049)0.281.73 (0.068)0.372.42 (0.095)0.471/413.70.540––1.66 (0.065)0.492.24 (0.088)0.633.03 (0.119)0.803/817.20.675––1.66 (0.065)0.632.32 (0.091)0.853.20 (0.126)1.101/221.30.8401.65 (0.065)0.812.11 (0.083)1.002.77 (0.109)1.273.74 (0.147)1.623/426.71.0501.65 (0.065)1.022.11 (0.083)1.282.87 (0.113)1.683.92 (0.154)2.20133.41.3151.65 (0.065)1.302.77 (0.109)2.093.38 (0.133)2.504.55 (0.179)3.241 1/442.21.6601.65 (0.065)1.662.77 (0.109)2.693.56 (0.140)3.394.86 (0.191)4.471 1/248.31.9001.65 (0.065)1.912.77 (0.109)3.113.69 (0.145)4.065.08 (0.200)5.41260.32.3751.65 (0.065)2.402.77 (0.109)3.933.92 (0.154)5.455.54 (0.218)7.492 1/273.02.8752.11 (0.083)3.693.05 (0.120)5.265.16 (0.203)8.647.01 (0.276)11.4388.93.5002.11 (0.083)4.523.05 (0.120)6.465.49 (0.216)11.37.62 (0.300)15.33 1/2101.64.0002.11 (0.083)5.183.05 (0.120)7.415.74 (0.226)13.68.08 (0.318)18.64114.34.5002.11 (0.083)5.843.05 (0.120)8.376.02 (0.237)16.18.56 (0.337)22.35141.35.5632.77 (0.109)9.463.41 (0.134)11.66.56 (0.258)21.89.53 (0.375)31.06168.36.6252.77 (0.109)11.33.41 (0.134)13.97.12 (0.280)28.310.98 (0.432)42.68219.18.6252.77 (0.109)14.83.76 (0.148)20.08.18 (0.322)42.512.70 (0.500)64.610273.110.7503.41 (0.134)22.74.20 (0.165)27.89.28 (0.365)60.412.70 (0.500)81.512323.912.7503.97 (0.156)31.34.58 (0.180)36.19.53 (0.375)73.912.70 (0.500)97.4 The ANSI/ASME 36.19M Stainless Steel Pipe – covers the standardization of dimensions of welded and seamless wrought stainless steel pipe Stainless Steel Fittings

The steel pipe data chart below can be used to find pipe sizes, diameters, wall thickness, working pressures and more The chart is based on ASME/ANSI B 36.10 Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe and ASME/ANSI B36.19 Stainless Steel Pipe. Regardless of schedule number, pipes of a particular size all have the same outside diameter (not withstanding manufacturing tolerances). As the schedule number increases, the wall thickness increases, and the actual bore is reduced. For example: A 4 inches (100 mm) Schedule 40 pipe has an outside diameter of 4.500 inches (114.30 mm), a wall thickness of 0.237 inches (6.02 mm), giving a bore of 4.026 inches (102.26 mm) A 4 inches (100 mm) Schedule 80 pipe has an outside diameter of 4.500 inches ( 114.30 mm), a wall thickness of 0.337 inches (8.56 mm), giving a bore of 3.826 inches (97.18 mm) Outside Diameter, Identification, Wall Thickness, Inside Diameter Area of Metal, Transverse Internal Area, Moment of Inertia, Weight Pipe, Weight Water, External Surface, Elastic Section Modulus Pipe Size (inches)Outside Diameter (inches)IdentificationWall Thickness  – t – (inches)Inside Diameter – d – (inches)SteelStainless Steel Schedule No.Iron Pipe SizeSchedule No.1/80.405. STD XS. 40 8010S 40S 80S0.049 0.068 0.0950.307 0.269 0.2151/40.540. STD XS.  40 8010S 40S 80S0.065 0.088 0.1190.410 0.364 0.3023/80.675. STD XS. 40 8010S 40S 80S0.065 0.091 0.1260.545 0.493 0.4231/20.840. . STD XS . XXS. . 40 80 160 .5S 10S 40S 80S . .0.065 0.083 0.109 0.147 0.187 0.2940.710 0.674 0.622 0.546 0.466 0.2523/4 1.050. . STD XS . XXS. . 40 80 160 .5S 10S 40S 80S . .0.065 0.083 0.113 0.154 0.219 0.3080.920 0.884 0.824 0.742 0.612 0.43411.315. . STD XS . XXS. . 40 80 160 .5S 10S 40S 80S . .0.065 0.109 0.133 0.179 0.250 0.3581.185 1.097 1.049 0.957 0.815 0.5991 1/41.660. . STD XS . XXS. . 40 80 160 .5S 10S 40S 80S . .0.065 0.109 0.140 0.191 0.250 0.3821.530 1.442 1.380 1.278 1.160 0.8961 1/21.900. . STD XS . XXS. . 40 80 160 .5S 10S 40S 80S . .0.065 0.109 0.145 0.200 0.281 0.4001.770 1.682 1.610 1.500 1.338 1.10022.375. . STD XS . XXS. . 40 80 160 .5S 10S 40S 80S . .0.065 0.109 0.154 0.218 0.344 0.4362.245 2.157 2.067 1.939 1.687 1.503

Dimensions of stainless steel weld fittings according ANSI/ASME 36.19M Stainless Steel Pipe are indicated in the tables below. Note! Wall thicknesses and weights are different for different stainless steel schedules. Stainless Steel Elbows and Stainless Steel Returns Nominal Pipe Size (inches)Outside Diameter90o Elbows45o Elbows180o ReturnsLong RadiusShort RadiusLong RadiusLong Radius(mm)(inches)Center to Face (inches)Center to Face (inches)Center to Face (inches)Radius (inches)Center to Center (inches)Back to face (inches)1/221.30.8401 1/2–5/8 21 7/83/426.71.0501 1/8–7/16 2 1/41 11/16133.41.3151 1/217/8 32 3/161 1/442.21.6601 7/81 1/41 3 3/42 3/41 1/248.31.9002 1/41 1/21 1/834 1/23 1/4260.32.375321 3/8464 3/162 1/273.02.8753 3/42 1/21 3/457 1/25 3/16388.93.5004 1/232696 1/43 1/2101.64.0005 1/43 1/22 1/4710 1/27 1/44114.34.500642 1/28128 1/45141.35.5637 1/253 1/8101510 5/166168.36.625963 3/4121812 5/168219.18.6251285122416 5/1610273.110.75015106 1/4153020 3/812323.912.75018127 1/2183624 3/8 Stainless Steel Tees, Caps, Stub Ends and Straight Crosses Nominal Pipe Size (inches)Outside DiameterCapsStraight TeesStraight CrossesStub Ends(mm)(inches)Length (inches)Center to End (inches)Center to End (inches)Lap Diameter (inches)Long Length (inches)Short Length (inches)1/221.30.84011–1 3/8323/426.71.05011 1/8–1 11/1632133.41.3151 1/21 1/21 1/22421 1/442.21.6601 1/21 7/81 7/82 1/2421 1/248.31.9001 1/22 1/42 1/42 7/842260.32.3751 1/22 1/22 1/23 5/862 1/22 1/273.02.8751 1/2334 1/862 1/2388.93.50023 3/83 3/8562 1/23 1/2101.64.0002 1/23 3/43 3/45 1/2634114.34.5002 1/24 1/84 1/86 3/16635141.35.56334 7/84 7/87 5/16836168.36.6253 1/25 5/85 5/88 1/283 1/28219.18.62547710 5/88410273.110.75058 1/28 1/212 3/410512323.912.7506101015106 Stainless Steel Reducers Nominal Pipe SizeOutside DiameterReducersReduced from (inches)(mm)(inches)Reduced to (inches)Concentric & Eccentric Length (inches)1/221.30.8401/41 1/23/81 1/23/426.71.0503/821/22133.41.3153/821/223/421 1/442.21.6601/223/42121 1/248.31.9001/22 1/23/42 1/212 1/21 1/42 1/2260.32.3753/43131 1/431 1/232 1/273.02.87513 1/21 1/43 1/21 1/23 1/223 1/2388.93.50013 1/21 1/23 1/223 1/22 1/23 1/23 1/2101.64.0001 1/441 1/24242 1/24344114.34.5001 1/24242 1/24343 1/245141.35.563252 1/25353 1/25456168.36.6252 1/25 1/235 1/23 1/25 1/245 1/255 1/28219.18.625363 1/2646566610273.110.7504757678712323.912.750586888108