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Production process of reducer: Pressure Molding The large sizes steel pipe reducers are commonly made from the steel plates, the production method is nearly same with the large sizes steel elbows production .  Pressing and forming the steel plates to the shape of a reducer then welding the seam . The heat treatment and RT inspection is also necessary for the quality assurance.

Production process of lap joint stub end: Pressure Molding A Stub End always will be used with a Lap Joint flange, as a backing flange; both are shown on the image below. This flange connections are applied, in low-pressure and non critical applications, and is a cheap method of flanging. In a stainless steel pipe system, for example, a carbon steel flange can be applied, because they are not come in contact with the product in the pipe.

Production process of pipe cap: pressing stereotype One of the most common manufacturing methods for pipe caps, where plate is cut out in a circle and formed by deep drawing. Pressing stereotype is the manufacturing process of forming sheet metal stock, called blanks, into geometrical or irregular shapes that are more than half their diameters in depth. Pressing stereotype involves stretching the metal blank around a plug and then moving it into a moulding cutter called a die. A pressing stereotype can be used for forming sheet metal into different shapes and the finished shape depends on the final position that the blanks are pushed down in. The metal used in pressing stereotype must be malleable as well as resistant to stress and tension damage.

Production process of butt welding fittings The Production & Quality Control Flow Chart For Plate Butt-Welding Fittings The Production & Quality Control Flow Chart For Pipe Butt-Welding Fittings The butt welding fittings are commonly made from two kinds of raw material: 1. Made from the steel pipes, it maybe the seamless pipes ,or welded pipes . The production method of both pipes are same. 2. Made from the steel plate, for example , the steel pipe cap, is made from the steel plate. Other big size pipe fittings which is not available to produce from a pipe is also made from steel plates, so it is not seamless pipe fittings, it need to be welded from the steel plates. Production process of elbow: hot forming Production process of elbow: cold forming Production process of elbow: Non-metallic single-welding Production process of elbow: pressing stereotype Process of tee: push stereotype Production process of tee: Hot-drawing Forming Production process of reducer: Pressing Stereotype Production process of reducer: Pressure Molding Production process of pipe cap: pressing stereotype Production process of lap joint stub end: Pressure Molding

About the passivation of the stainless steel pipe fittings In our today’s career stainless steel pipe fittings used to say very much, but you know that just get its hands on stainless steel pipe fittings is put into immediately to use oh, you know to forefathers sex passivation disposal? Any stainless steel parts, if no plating or other coating request, ordinary At pre treatment (including pickling to black, polishing, etc.) through the passivation disposal, talents when products or disassembled into parts. Thermodynamics can be improved after passivation of stainless steel in medium volatility, prevention of stainless steel parts of the corruption, make stainless steel appearance has enough clean degree And can also eliminate stainless steel exterior thermal oxide. The passivation technology of stainless steel can be pided into wet and dry process two kinds. Detailed and type can be pided into many varieties. Here are bolden stainless steel pipe fittings for everybody introduced next wet down the pickling passivation operation method: Washing is applied chemistry reaction in workpiece melting appearance lost rust, oxidation film, and other products, this method does not affect the matrix metal, the goal is to make the workpiece surface decontamination, to reach the goal of pollution. Passivation is the application of chemical reaction, in workpiece appearance constitute a dense oxide film Methods. The goal is to make the workpiece appearance set oxide film or oxygen adsorption layer, thereby blocking electrochemistry corrupting stop, and progress of metal corrosion (electrochemical corrupt) function. A construction procedures 1, preparation task (1) before the pickling and passivation needed to tube sheet welding coated, splash, burrs, dirt, etc liquidation clean. (2) pipe appearance of oil can be used to wipe clean gasoline, acetone and other inorganic solvents. On large areas of oil can be used for the sake of peace steam or 3 ~ 5% caustic soda solution (NaOH) washing, then wash clean with clear water and dry them. Pay attention to the use of water and CL – ion concentration limit 25 mg/l. (3) prepare pickling and passivation homework required equipment, tools, and labor insurance supplies (three people work at the same time, for example). 1) equipment and tools A. acid pickling and passivation bath A; B. stainless steel wire brush or hard plastic nylon brush 3; C. measuring cup, measuring cylinder and Taiwan said, stir bar each one; D. acid mop to 3. (2) maintenance supplies to rest A. acid their rubber shoes 3 double; B. acid-resistant rubber gloves 3 pay; C. acid cap, mask 3 sets of tasks and mission; D. glasses 3 pay. 2, pickling and passivation materials and preparation of pickling and passivation solution attention to matters (1) the pickling and passivation materials preparation (1) industrial nitric acid (HNO3, gamma = 1.42). (2) industrial hydrochloric acid (HCL); (3) industrial sulfuric acid (- H2SO4); Ordinary stainless steel pipe fittings depends on both the passivation effects of passivation process, also depends on the stainless steel material itself, the influence of the detailed elements have stainless steel contains elements of metallographic structure, stainless steel, stainless steel processing forms, etc. In elements, chromium, nickel belongs to the passivation strong sex element, iron passivation followed, therefore, the higher the content of chromium, nickel, the stronger the passivation of stainless steel. Austenitic stainless steel, iron element size is average, but is passivation, markov shape through the heat treatment of stainless steel reinforcement, its microstructure is heterogeneous organization, so the passivation is not strong.

Mechanical Insulation – Types and Materials Any surface which is hotter than its surroundings will lose heat. The heat loss depends on many factors, but the surface temperature and its size are dominant. Putting the insulation on a hot surface will reduce the external surface temperature. By insulation, the surface will increase on objects, but the relative effect of temperature reduction will be much greater and heat loss will be reduced. A similar situation occurs when the surface temperature is lower than its surroundings. In both cases some energy is lost. These energy losses can be reduced by laying the practical and economical insulation on surfaces whose temperatures are quite different than the surrounding one. Categories of Insulation Materials Insulation materials or systems may also be categorized by service temperature range. There are varying opinions as to the classification of mechanical insulation by the service temperature range for which insulation is used. As an example, the word cryogenics means “the production of freezing cold”; however the term is used widely as a synonym for many low temperature applications. It is not well-defined at what point on the temperature scale refrigeration ends and cryogenics begins. The National Institute of Standards and Technology in Boulder, Colorado considers the field of cryogenics as those involving temperatures below -180°C. They based their determination on the understanding that the normal boiling points of the so-called permanent gases, such as helium, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and normal air, lie below -180°C while the Freon refrigerants, hydrogen sulfide and other common refrigerants have boiling points above -180°C. Understanding that some may have a different range of service temperature by which to classify mechanical insulation, the mechanical insulation industry has generally adopted the following category definitions:CategoryDefinitionCryogenic Applications-50°F & BelowThermal Applications:Refrigeration, chill water and below ambient applications-49°F to +75°FMedium to high temp. applications+76°F to +1200°FRefractory Applications+1200°F & Above Cellular insulations are composed of small inpidual cells either interconnecting or sealed from each other to form a cellular structure. Glass, plastics, and rubber may comprise the base material and a variety of foaming agents are used. Cellular insulations are often further classified as either open cell (i.e. cells are interconnecting) or closed cell (cells sealed from each other). Generally, materials that have greater than 90% closed cell content are considered to be closed cell materials. Fibrous insulations are composed of small diameter fibers that finely pide the air space. The fibers may be organic or inorganic and they are normally (but not always) held together by a binder. Typical inorganic fibers include glass, rock wool, slag wool, and alumina silica. Fibrous insulations are further classified as either wool or textile-based insulations. Textile-based insulations are composed of woven and non-woven fibers and yarns. The fibers and yarns may be organic or inorganic. These materials are sometimes supplied with coatings or as composites for specific properties, e.g. weather and chemical resistance, reflectivity, etc. Flake insulations are composed of small particles or flakes which finely pide the air space. These flakes may or may not be bonded together. Vermiculite, or expanded mica, is flake insulation. Granular insulations are composed of small nodules that contain voids or hollow spaces. These materials are sometimes considered open cell materials since gases can be transferred between the inpidual spaces. Calcium silicate and molded perlite insulations are considered granular insulation. Reflective Insulations and treatments are added to surfaces to lower the long-wave emittance thereby reducing the radiant heat transfer to or from the surface. Some reflective insulation systems consist of multiple parallel thin sheets or foil spaced to minimize convective heat transfer. Low emittance jackets and facings are often used in combination with other insulation materials. Some Insulation Type Examples Cellular Insulations Elastomeric Elastomeric insulations are defined by ASTM C 534, Type I (preformed tubes) and Type II (sheets). There are three grades in the ASTM standard which are widely available. All three grades are flexible and resilient closed-cell expanded foam insulation. The maximum water vapor permeability is 0.10 perm-inch and the maximum thermal conductivity at 75°F temperature is 0.28 BTU in/(h ft2 F) for grades 1 and 3 and grade 2 is 0.30 BTU in/(h ft2F). Grade 3 formulation does not contain any leachable chlorides, fluorides or polyvinyl chloride or any halogens. The preformed tubular insulation is available in ID sizes from 3/8″ to 6 IPS and in wall thickness from 3/8″ to 1.1/2″ and in typical length of 6 feet. The tubular product is available with and without pre-applied adhesive. The sheet insulation is available in continuous lengths of 4 feet widths or 3′ x 4′ and in wall thicknesses from 1/8″ to 2″. The sheet product is available with and without pre-applied adhesive. These materials are normally installed without additional vapor retarders. Additional vapor-retarder protection may be necessary when installed on very-low-temperature piping or where exposed to continually high humidity conditions. All seams and termination points must be sealed with manufacturer recommended contact adhesive. For outdoor applications a weatherable jacket or manufacturer recommended coating must be applied to protect against UV and ozone. Cellular Glass Cellular Glass is defined by ASTM as insulation composed of glass processed to form a rigid foam having a predominantly closed-cell structure. Cellular glass is covered by ASTM C552, “Standard Specification for Cellular Glass Thermal Insulation” and is intended for use on surfaces operating at temperatures between -450 and 800°F. The Standard defines two grades and four types, as follows: Cellular glass is produced in block form (Type I). Blocks of Type I product are typically shipped to fabricators who produce fabricated shapes (Types II, III, and IV) that are supplied to distributors and/or insulation contractors. The maximum thermal conductivity is specified, by grade, as follows (for selected temperatures):Temperature,°FGrade 1Grade 2Type I, Block-150°F0.200.26-50°F0.240.2950°F0.300.3475°F0.310.35100°F0.330.37200°F0.400.44400°F0.580.63Type II, Pipe100°F0.370.41400°F0.690.69 The standard also contains requirements for density, compressive strength, flexural strength, water absorption, water-vapor permeability, combustibility, and surface burning characteristics. Cellular glass insulation is a rigid inorganic non-combustible, impermeable, chemically resistant form of glass. It is available faced or un-faced (jacketed or un-jacketed). Because of the wide temperature range, different fabrication techniques are sometimes used at various operating temperature ranges. Typically, fabrication of cellular glass insulation involves gluing multiple blocks together to form a “billet” which is then used to produce pipe insulation or special shapes. The glue or adhesives used vary with the intended end use and design operating temperatures. For below-ambient applications, hot melt adhesives such as ASTM D 312 Type III asphalt are usually used. On above-ambient systems, or where organic adhesives could pose a problem (i.e., LOX service) an inorganic product such as gypsum cement is often used as fabricating adhesive. Other adhesives may be recommended for specific applications. When specifying cellular glass insulation, include system operating conditions to ensure proper fabrication. Fibrous Insulations Fibrous insulations are composed of small diameter fibers that finely pide the air space. The fibers may be organic or inorganic and they are normally (but not always) held together by a binder. Typical inorganic fibers include glass, rock wool, slag wool, and alumina silica. Mineral Fiber Pipe Mineral Fiber Pipe insulation is covered in ASTM C 547. The standard contains five types classified primarily by maximum use temperature.TypeFormMaximum Use Temp,°FIMolded850°FIIMolded1200°FIIIPrecision V-groove1200°FIVMolded1000°FVMolded1400°F The standard further classifies products by grade. Grade A products may be “slapped-on” at the maximum use temperature indicated, while Grade B products are designed to be used with a heat-up schedule. The specified maximum thermal conductivity for all types is 0.25 Btu in/(hr ft2 °F) at a mean temperature of 100°F. The standard also contains requirements for sag resistance, linear shrinkage, water-vapor sorption, surface-burning characteristics, hot surface performance, and non-fibrous (shot) content. Further, there is an optional requirement in ASTM C 547 for stress corrosion performance if the product is to be used in contact with austenitic stainless steel piping. Fiberglass pipe insulation products will generally fall into either Type I or Type IV. Mineral wool products will comply with the higher temperature requirements for Types II, III, and V. These pipe insulation products may be specified with various factory-applied facings, or they may be jacketed in the field. Mineral fiber pipe insulations systems are also available with “self-drying” wicking material that wraps continuously around pipes, valves, and fittings. These products are intended to keep the insulation material dry for chilled water piping in high-humidity locations. Mineral fiber pipe insulation sections are typically supplied in lengths of 36 inch, and are available for most standard pipe and tubing sizes. Available thicknesses range from ½in to 6in. Granular Insulations Calcium Silicate Calcium Silicate thermal insulation is defined by ASTM as insulation composed principally of hydrous calcium silicate, and which usually contains reinforcing fibers. Calcium Silicate Pipe and Block Insulation are covered in ASTM C 533. The standard contains three types classified primarily by maximum use temperature and density. The standard limits the operating temperature between 80°F to 1700°F. Calcium Silicate pipe insulation is supplied as hollow cylinder shapes split in half lengthwise or as curved segments. Pipe insulation sections are typically supplied in lengths of 36 inch, and are available in sizes to fit most standard pipe sizes. Available thicknesses range from 1″ to 3″ in one layer. Thicker insulation is supplied as nested sections. Calcium Silicate block insulation is supplied as flat sections in lengths of 36″, widths of 6″, 12″, and 18″ and thickness from 1″ to 4″. Grooved block is available for fitting block to large diameter curved surfaces. Special shapes such as valve or fitting insulation can be fabricated from standard sections. Calcium Silicate is normally finished with a metal or fabric jacket for appearance and weather protection. The specified maximum thermal conductivity for Type 1 is 0.41 Btu-in/(h ft2 °F) at a mean temperature of 100°F. The specified maximum thermal conductivity for Types 1A and Type 2 is 0.50 Btu-in/(h ft2 °F) at a mean temperature of 100°F. The standard also contains requirements for flexural (bending) strength, compressive strength, linear shrinkage, surface-burning characteristics, and maximum moisture content as shipped. Typical applications include piping and equipment operating at temperatures above 250°F, tanks, vessels, heat exchangers, steam piping, valve and fitting insulation, boilers, vents and exhaust ducts. Reference(s): Source: wermac.org https://www.wbdg.org and http://www.roxul.com More about Mechanical Insulation Part 1: Mechanical Insulation – Types and Materials Part 2: Mechanical Insulation – Space Requirements of Insulation Part 3: Mechanical Insulation – Insulation of Piping

Mechanical Insulation – Insulation of Piping Piping plays a central role in many industrial processes in chemical or petrochemical installations such as power plants, as it connects core components such as appliances, columns, vessels, boilers, turbines etc. with one another and facilitates the flow of materials and energy. To guarantee a correct process cycle, the condition of the media within the pipes must remain within the set limitations (e.g. temperature, viscosity, pressure, etc.). In addition to the correct isometric construction and fastening of the piping, the piping insulation also has an important function. It must ensure that heat loss are effectively reduced and that the installation continues to operate economically and functionally on a permanent basis. This is the only way to guarantee the maximum efficiency of the process cycle throughout the design service life without losses as a result of faults. Requirements for industrial piping The basic efficiency and productivity factors of piping for the processing industry include: energy efficiency, dependability and reliability under different conditions, functionality of the process control, appropriate support structure suitable for the operating environment, as well as mechanical durability. The thermal insulation of piping plays a significant role in fulfilling these requirements. Thermal insulation The functions of proper thermal insulation for piping include: Reduction of heat losses (cost savings) Reduction of CO2 emissions Frost protection Process control: ensuring the stability of the process temperature Noise reduction Condensation prevention Personnel protection against high temperatures Applicable standards – A few examples: NACE SP0198 (Control of corrosion under thermal insulation and fireproofing materials – a systems approach) MICA (National Commercial & Industrial Insulation Standards) DIN 4140 (Insulation works on technical industrial plants and in technical facility equipment) AGI Q101 (Insulation works on power plant components) CINI-Manual “Insulation for industries” BS 5970 (Code of practice for the thermal insulation of pipework, ductwork, associated equipment and other industrial installations) Minimum pipe insulation thicknessFluid Operating Temperature Range and Usage (°F)Insulation ConductivityConductivity Btu · in. /(h · ft2 · °F)bMean Rating Temperature, °F> 3500.32 – 0.34250251 – 3500.29 – 0.32200201 – 2500.27 – 0.30150141 – 2000.25 – 0.29125105 – 1400.21 – 0.2810040 – 600.21 – 0.2775< 400.20 – 0.2675Nominal Pipe or Tube Size (inches)< 11 to < 1-1/21-1/2 to < 44 to < 8≥ 84.55.05.05.05.03.04.04.54.54.52.52.52.53.03.01.51.52.02.02.01.01.01.51.51.50.50.51.01.01.00.51.01.01.01.5 a For piping smaller than 1-1/2 inch (38 mm) and located in partitions within conditioned spaces, reduction of these thicknesses by 1 inch (25 mm) shall be permitted (before thickness adjustment required in footnote b) but not to a thickness less than 1 inch (25 mm). b For insulation outside the stated conductivity range, the minimum thickness (T) shall be determined as follows: T = r{(1+t/r) K/k-1} Where: T = Minimum insulation thickness r = Actual outside radius of pipe t = Insulation thickness listed in the table for applicable fluid temperature and pipe size K = Conductivity of alternate material at mean rating temperature indicated for the applicable fluid temperature (Btu x in/h x ft2 x °F) and k = The upper value of the conductivity range listed in the table for the applicable fluid temperature c For direct-buried heating and hot water system piping, reduction of these thicknesses by 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) shall be permitted (before thickness adjustment required in footnote b but not to thicknesses less than 1 inch (25 mm). Cladding Suitable cladding should be applied to protect the insulation from weather influences, mechanical loads and (potentially corrosive) pollution. Selecting the appropriate cladding depens on various factors, such as working loads, wind loads, ambient temperatures and conditions. When selecting the appropriate cladding, take the following points into account: As a general rule, galvanised steel more than aluminium is used indoors due to its mechanical strength, fire resistance and low surface temperature (in comparison to an aluminium cladding). In corrosive environments like outdoors on deck where salty water leads to corrision, aluminised steel, stainless steel or glass reinforced polyester is used as cladding. Stainless steel is recommended for use in environments with a fire risk. The surface temperature of the cladding is influenced by the material type. The following applies as a general rule: the shinier the surface, the higher the surface temperature. To exclude the risk of galvanic corrosion, only use combinations of metals that do not tend to corrode due to their electrochemical potentials. For acoustic insulation, a noise absorbent material (Lead layer, polyethyten foil) is installed on the insulation or inside the cladding. To reduce the risk of fire, limit the surface temperatures of the cladding to the maximum operating temperature of the noise absorbent material. Source: wermac.org Reference(s): https://www.wbdg.org, http://www.roxul.com, http://apps.leg.wa.gov/wac More about Mechanical Insulation Part 1: Mechanical Insulation – Types and Materials Part 2: Mechanical Insulation – Space Requirements of Insulation Part 3: Mechanical Insulation – Insulation of Piping

Mechanical Insulation – Space Requirements of Insulation The space requirements of the insulation must be taken into account when the installation is being designed and planned. Therefore, the insulation thicknesses should be determined in the early planning stages and the distances between the inpidual objects should be taken into account in the piping isometrics. To guarantee systematic installation of the insulation materials and the cladding without increased expense, observe the minimum distances between the objects as specified in the following illustrations. Minimum distances between vessels and columns; dimensions in inches (mm) Minimum distances between insulated pipes; dimensions in inches (mm) Minimum distances within range of pipe flanges; dimensions in inches (mm) a = distance flange to normal insulation a ≥ 2in (50 mm) x = bolt length + 1.2in (30 mm) s = insulation thickness Source: wermac.org Reference(s): https://www.wbdg.org and http://www.roxul.com More about Mechanical Insulation Part 1: Mechanical Insulation – Types and Materials Part 2: Mechanical Insulation – Space Requirements of Insulation Part 3: Mechanical Insulation – Insulation of Piping

Fossils into Fuels – Oil & Gas extraction Nodding Donkey A pumpjack (also known as nodding donkey) is the popular name for the aboveground part of a pump that pumping oil from the ground. With the use of a drilling rig, a well is drilled to the oil field, and a pipe is connected to the source to a submersible pump. This pump is located deep under the ground, and is driven by an electric motor placed above ground. The Nodding Donkey is responsible for the mechanical transmission to the piston in the underground pump. It is used to mechanically lift liquid out of the well if there is not enough bottom hole pressure for the liquid to flow all the way to the surface. The arrangement is commonly used for onshore wells producing relatively little oil. Pumpjacks are common in many oil-rich areas, dotting the countryside and occasionally serving as local landmarks. Depending on the size of the pump, it generally produces 5 to 40 litres of liquid at each stroke. Often this is an emulsion of crude oil and water. The size of the pump is also determined by the depth and weight of the oil to be removed, with deeper extraction requiring more power to move the heavier lengths of sucker rods. A pumpjack converts the rotary mechanism of the motor to a vertical reciprocating motion to drive the pump shaft, and is exhibited in the characteristic nodding motion. The engineering term for this type of mechanism is a walking beam. It was often employed in stationary and marine steam engine designs in the 18th and 19th centuries. A schematic of a typical oil well being produced by a Pumpjack or Nodding Donkey. Image comes from TastyCakes Above ground The body of the pumpjack is called a walking beam, and it acts as a giant lever. At the tail end of the pumpjack is a crank and a counterweight, which work together to move the walking beam up and down. As the walking beam moves the “head” bobs up and down as well. A long metal rod called a “bridle” extends downward from the head and penetrates deep into the ground, reaching the oil well. As the pumpjack’s head bobs up and down, the rod goes up and down as well. Bellow ground The main underground mechanism in a pumpjack contains two Valves; a standing Valve at the bottom of the rod with a traveling Valve right above it. The area between the two Valves is called the pump barrel. When the rod moves upward, the pressure inside the pump barrel decreases, which opens the standing Valve and closes the traveling Valve. The traveling Valve therefore moves upwards and the oil below the rod flows into the pump barrel. As the rod descends, the pressure inside the pump barrel increases, which closes the standing Valve and opens the traveling Valve. Therefore, the oil in the pump barrel flows to the area above the traveling Valve. As the rod ascends once again and the traveling rod moves upwards, the oil above it flows up the rod as well. In this manner, oil is continuously pumped from the ground. Oil and Gas Well Drilling Today, almost all oil and gas wells are drilled using rotary drilling. In rotary drilling, a length of steel pipe (the drillpipe) with a drill bit on the end is rotated to cut a hole called the well bore. As the well goes deeper, additional sections of drillpipe are added to the top of the rotating drill string. Rotary drilling uses a steel tower to support the drillpipe. If the tower is part of a tractor-trailer and is jacked up as a unit, it is called a mast. If it is constructed on site, it is called a derrick. Both towers are constructed of structural steel and sit on a flat steel surface called the drill or derrick floor; this is where most of the drilling activity occurs. Four major systems comprise an operational rotary drilling rig: the power supply, the hoisting system, the rotating system, and the circulating system. An operational rig requires a dependable power supply in order for the other rig systems to operate. Power to these systems may be supplied through one or more diesel engines used alone or in conjunction with an electrical power supply. The hoisting system raises, lowers, and suspends equipment in the well and typically consists of a drilling or hoisting line composed of wound steel cable spooled over a revolving reel. The cable passes through a number of pulleys, including one suspended from the top of the derrick or mast. The hoisting system is used to move drillpipe into or out of the well. The rotating system includes the turning drillpipe, the drill bit, and related equipment. It cuts the well bore, which may have an initial diameter of 20 in. (51 cm) or more but is usually less. The drill bit is located at the bottom end of the first drillpipe within the rotating system. The drillpipe is rotated by a rotary table located on the derrick floor. The drillpipe consists of heattreated alloy steel and may range in length from 18 to 45 ft (5 to 14 m); drillpipe length is typically uniform at each inpidual drilling rig. Before the drillpipe is fully inserted into the well bore, another section of drillpipe is added. During drilling, the circulating system pumps drilling mud or fluids into the well bore to cool the drill bit, remove rock chips, and control subsurface fluids. Typically, mud is circulated down through the hollow drillpipe. The mud exits the pipe through holes or nozzles in the drill bit, and returns to the surface through the space between the drillpipe and the well bore wall. Drilling Muds Drilling muds (also termed fluids) are used during the drilling process to transport rock chips (cuttings) from the bottom of the well up and out of the well bore, where the cuttings are screened and removed, and the separated mud is reused. Drilling muds also act to cool the drill bit, to stabilize the well walls during drilling, and to control formation fluids that may flow into the well. The most common drilling mud is a liquid-based mud typically composed of a base fluid (such as water, diesel oil, mineral oil, or a synthetic compound), with optional additives such as weighting agents (most commonly barium sulfate), bentonite clay (to help remove cuttings and to form a filler cake on the well bore walls), and lignosulfates and lignites (to keep the mud in a fluid state) (DOE 2005c). Water-based muds and cuttings can be readily disposed of at most onshore locations, and in many U.S. offshore waters offshore disposal occurs as long as applicable regulatory effluent guidelines are met. In contrast, oil-based muds from onshore wells have more stringent land disposal requirements and are prohibited from discharge from offshore well platforms. Synthetic-based muds use nonaqueous chemicals (other than oils) as their base fluid, such as internal olefins, esters, linear alpha-olefins, or linear paraffins. While these fluids have a lower toxicity, undergo more rapid biodegradation, and have a lower bioaccumulation potential than oil-based fluids, they are also prohibited from offshore discharge. Blowout Preventer (BOB) All drilling sites include a blowout preventer. The blowout preventer, which is routinely used in onshore and offshore drilling, is intended to prevent oil, gas, and / or other subsurface liquids (i.e., salt water) from leaving the well and escaping into the atmosphere, onto the ground, into adjacent water bodies, or overlying waters. At the bottom of a well, there are two fluid pressures. Pressure on fluids in the formation tries to force the fluids to flow from the formation into the well. Pressure exerted by the weight of the drilling mud filling the well tries to force the drilling mud into the surrounding rocks. Under normal operations, the effective weight of the drilling mud is adjusted to exert a slightly greater pressure on the bottom of the well than the effective pressure on the fluid in the rocks, causing the mud to enter the rock and cover the sides of the well and thus stabilize the well. If the pressure on the fluid in the rocks is greater than the pressure of the drilling mud, water, gas, or oil will flow out of the rock into the well. In extreme cases, a blowout occurs where the fluids flow uncontrolled into the well and on occasion violently to the surface. A blowout preventer is a device that is used to close off a well if there is a loss of control of the fluids in the formation. There are a variety of types of blowout preventers.Some close over the top of the well bore, some are designed to seal around the tubular components in the well (such as the drillpipe, casing, or tubing), and some have hardened steel shearing surfaces that actually cut through the drillpipe to seal off the opening. Critical Components in a Complex System Reference(s): New York Times (By Mika Gröndahl, Haeyoun Park, Graham Roberts And Archie Tse) Article Excerpt (January 27, 2011) After the explosion of the Deepwater Horizon oil rig, investigators focused on the failure of a component on the well’s blowout preventer that is supposed to close off a well spewing out of control. The device, called a blind shear ram, is the only part of the blowout preventer that can completely seal the well. Minutes after the explosion, at least one rig worker hit an emergency button, which is supposed to trigger the blind shear ram within about 30 seconds, and then disconnect the rig from the well. But that night, the blind shear ram never fully deployed. Inside the Blowout Preventer What Should Happen in an Emergency In a blowout, a rig worker presses an emergency button. A signal is sent from the rig down an electrical line to one of the control pods. The control pod directs hydraulic fluid from the rig and from a bank of pressurized canisters, called accumulators. Through a Valve, called a shuttle Valve, and into the blind shear ram. Some blowout preventers have a separate emergency system with its own shuttle Valve. The blind shear ram cuts through the drill pipe and seals the well, preventing oil from gushing out. Inside the Blind Shear Ram Of all the components on the blowout preventer, only the blind shear ram was designed to shut down the well in a blowout like the one that took place on the Deepwater Horizon oil rig on 20 April 2010. It is the only device that is supposed to cut through the thick drill pipe and seal off the hole. Unlike many other parts of the Deepwater Horizon’s blowout preventer, the blind shear ram has no backup. The breakdown of any part of the ram can lead to disaster. One of the most critical components of the blind shear ram is the shuttle Valve, the only point for the hydraulic fluid to enter the ram. A risk analysis commissioned by the manufacturer of the blowout preventer identified this Valve as one of the weakest links. As the fluid flows through the system, it has two possible pathways until it reaches the Valve. So if the Valve fails, the well will not be sealed. How it works Fluid enters the shuttle Valve from one of two inlet ports and pushes a metal “shuttle” to one side and flows down the stem of the T-shaped Valve. The fluid flows behind pistons, which drive the ram to shear the drill pipe. Wedge locks slide in to prevent the pistons from moving back. Rubber seals on the ram close off the well. Oil pushing up from the well adds pressure below and behind the ram, helping to keep the ram closed. How the Ram Cuts the Drill Pipe Sources: BP; Benton Baugh, Radoil, a deepwater engineering firm; Cameron; “Marine Riser Systems and Subsea Blowout Preventers,” Petroleum Extension Service, The University of Texas at Austin and International Association of Drilling Contractors; West Engineering Services Offshore Drilling A major difference between onshore and offshore drilling is the nature of the drilling platform. In addition, in offshore drilling the drillpipe must pass through the water column before entering the lake or seafloor. Offshore wells have been drilled in waters as deep as 10,000 ft (305 m). The following text provides an overview of drilling in offshore environments. Drilling template Offshore drilling requires the construction of an artificial drilling platform, the form of which depends on the characteristics of the well to be drilled. Offshore drilling also involves the use of a drilling template that helps to connect the underwater drilling site to the drilling platform located at the water’s surface. This template typically consists of an open steel box with multiple holes, depending on the number of wells to be drilled. The template is installed in the floor of the water body by first excavating a shallow hole and then cementing the template into the hole. The template provides a stable guide for accurate drilling while allowing for movement in the overhead platform due to wave and wind action. Drilling platforms There are two types of basic offshore drilling platforms, the movable drilling rig and the permanent drilling rig. The former is typically used for exploration purposes, while the latter is used for the extraction and production of oil and/or gas. A variety of movable rigs are used for offshore drilling. Drilling barges are used in shallow (<20 ft [<6 m] water depth), quiet waters such as lakes, wetlands, and large rivers. As implied by the name, drilling barges consist of a floating barge that must be towed from location to location, with the working platform floating on the water surface. In very shallow waters, these may be sunk to rest on the bottom. They are not suitable for locations with strong currents or winds and strong wave action. Like barges, jack-up rigs are also towed, but once on location three or four legs are extended to the lake bottom while the working platform is raised above the water surface; thus, they are much less affected by wind and water current than drilling barges. Submersible rigs are also employed in shallow waters and, like jack-up rigs, are in contact with the lake bottom. These rigs include platforms with two hulls positioned above one another, with the lower hull acting like a submarine. When being towed to a new location, the lower hull is filled with air and serves to float the entire platform. Once on location, the lower hull is filled with water, and the rig sinks until the legs make contact with the lake bottom. As with the previous movable rigs, use of this type is limited to shallow water areas. Because of their size and relative ease of transport to drill sites, shallow water rigs would be the most likely type of rig that could be employed in the Great Lakes. Eirik Raude rig is designed to carry out drilling operations in water depths down to 10 000 feet. Eirik Raude remains stable in harsh weather conditions owing to its superior motion characteristics and advanced dynamic positioning systems. Technical Specification Eirik Raude. The most common movable offshore drilling rig is the semi-submersible rig. It functions in a similar manner to the submersible rig, with a lower hull that can be filled or emptied of water. However, this type of rig does not contact the lake floor but floats partially submerged and is held in place through a number of anchors. This type of rig provides a stable and safe working platform in deeper and more turbulent offshore environments, and when high reservoir pressures are expected. The final type of movable drilling rig is the drillship. These are ships designed to carry drilling platforms great distances offshore and in very deep waters. A drilling platform and derrick are located in the middle of a large, open area of the ship, and the drill is extended through the ship to the drilling template. When exploratory drilling locates commercially viable oil or gas deposits, a more permanent drilling platform is required to support well completion and oil and/or gas extraction. A variety of such production platforms are used for offshore drilling. Fixed platforms are typically used in areas with water depths less than 1,500 ft (457 m) and would be the most likely type of production platform that would be used in the Great Lakes. These platforms contact the bottom using concrete or steel legs and are either directly attached to, or simply rest on, the bottom. A variety of other production platforms are available for deeper water conditions and would probably not be applicable for use in the Great Lakes. Drilling techniques Conventional wells are drilled vertically from the surface straight down to the pay zone. This is the traditional and still common type of drilling. Horizontal Drilling using technologies such as bottom driven bits, drillers are able to execute a sharp turn and drill horizontally along a thin pay zone. In a related procedure, developed in this area, two horizontal well bores are drilled one above the other, about 3 meters apart. One application for this is SAGD (Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage) where steam is injected into the higher of these horizontal holes and the heat precipitates oil down into the lower hole, increasing production of heavy oil. Drilling these holes requires an experienced crew, precision techniques and advanced technology. Slant Drilling at an angle from perpendicular (commonly 30° to 45°). This approach minimizes surface environmental disturbance. For example, oil reserves under a lake can be tapped by a slant hole drilled from on shore. More commonly in this area; four, six, even eight slant wells are drilled from one “pad” (i.e. well lease site). This allows the oil reserves under a large land area to be tapped by only one well site. Thus, production of valuable oil reserves is effectively harmonized with conserving the environment. (left to right) Conventional, Slant, Horizontal Image comes from http://www.lloydminsterheavyoil.com/ Directional Drilling has advanced from slant and horizontal drilling to drilling that can change direction and depth several times in one well bore. A schematic of these drill bores (often several from the same drill pad, resembles the roots of a plant. This type of drilling is uniquely suited to pay zones in the Lloydminster area which are often distributed like prairie sloughs across the underground landscape. Directional drilling is also being applied in other parts of the world now such as Venezuela and where there is a special need to limit environmental impact on the surface. Well Completion Once a well has been drilled and verified to be commercially viable, it must be completed to allow for the flow of oil or gas. The completion process involves the strengthening of the well walls with casing and installing the appropriate equipment to control the flow of oil or gas from the well. Casing consists of a stacked series of metal pipes installed into the new well in order to strengthen the walls of the well hole, to prevent fluids and gases from seeping out of the well as it is brought to the surface, and to prevent other fluids or gases from entering the rock formations through which the well was drilled. Casing extends from the surface to the bottom of the well and is typically steel pipe with a diameter that may range from 4.5 to 36 in. (11 to 91 cm). Casing with a diameter slightly smaller than that of the well hole is inserted into the well, and a wet cement slurry is pumped between the casing and the sides of the well. Casing is installed as the well is progressively drilled deeper. The top interval of the well, extending from the surface to a depth below the lowermost drinking water zone, is the first to be completed, being cemented from the surface to below the drinking water zone. Next, a smaller diameter hole is drilled to a lower depth, and then that segment is completed. This process may be repeated several times until the final drilling depth is reached. Another aspect of well completion is the selection of an appropriate intake configuration for the well. Intake configurations are designed to permit the flow of oil or gas into the well, and the selection of a particular intake type will depend on the nature of the formation surrounding the intake portion of the well. Well completion also involves the installation of an appropriate wellhead. A wellhead is the permanent equipment mounted at the opening of the well that is used to regulate and monitor oil or gas extraction from the well. The wellhead also prevents oil or gas leakage from the well and blowouts due to high-pressure formations associated with the well. For wells with sufficient pressure for the oil or gas to reach the surface without assistance, the wellhead will include a series of Valves and fittings to control the flow. Gas wellheads in the Canadian waters by Lake Erie are located on the lake bottom because of winter ice and navigational concerns. Such wellheads would likely be used for any offshore wells in U.S. waters of the Great Lakes. Most modern (or recently drilled) onshore U.S. oil wells do not have enough internal pressure for the oil to flow to the surface. For such oil wells, lifting equipment or well treatment is used to bring the oil to the surface. Lifting equipment typically involves the use of some type of mechanical surface or downhole pump. Well treatment involves the injection of acid, water, or gases into the well to open the formation and allow oil to flow more freely through it and into the well. For some oil wells, a compressed gas (often natural gas collected from the oil well) is injected into the well. This gas dissolves into the oil, forming bubbles that lighten the oil and bring it to the surface. For wells in limestone or carbonate formations, acid may be injected under pressure to dissolve portions of the rock and thus create spaces that enhance the flow of oil. Fracturing involves the injection of a fluid that cracks or opens up fractures in the oil-bearing formation. In some cases, propping agents may be added during the injection. Propping agents are materials that act to prop open newly widened fractures; these agents can consist of sand or glass beads. While well treatment has been used more often for oil wells, it has also been used to increase extraction rates in gas wells. Source: wermac.org

What length must an eccentric reducer be on a centrifugal pump from pump port to pipe Connection? Eccentric reducer is typically installed at the centrifugal process pump suction nozzles in order to facilitate proper transition from the the larger diameter (low flow velocity, moderate friction loss) suction piping to the pump suction nozzle. Designer has to pay attention to the proper installation of eccentric reducers at the suction piping of pumps. They must be installed in a proper way so that entrapped air or vapours will not accumulate in any portion of the pipe reducer. Entrapped vapour bubbles can reduce a pump’s suction line cross-sectional area. If this happens, then flow velocities will increase and so will friction losses, leading to an adverse effect on pump performance and long-term reliability. Eccentric reducers installation instructions When the source of supply is above the pump, then the eccentric reducers must be placed with the flat side at the bottom. In case of long horizontal pipe runs, air pockets are avoided by installing the eccentric reducer with the flat side up. In case the source of supply comes from below the pump, then the eccentric reducer has to be installed with the flat side up, as indicated in Picture-1. Straight length requirement for pump suction piping Whenever a low point exists at the pump’s suction line and a concentric reducer is used at pump suction nozzle, it is possible to have vapour accumulation close to the pump suction nozzle (Picture-2). In such cases, it is highly recommended that the straight horizontal pipe run is kept to a minimum. Most often, in such installations, the reducer flange is directly connected at the pump’s suction nozzle: there is no straight length of piping between the reducer outlet and the pump nozzle. Straight pipe lengths are however connected to the inlet flange of an eccentric reducer. Five (5) diameters of straight length of piping upstream the reducer is usually considered as good engineering practice. In case several improperly specified parameters come into the equation (e.g. viscosity changes etc), then it would be prudent to install as many as ten (10) diameters of straight piping next to the reducer inlet flange. A number ranging between five (5) to ten (10) diameters of straight pipe run is typically the recommended value in published technical literature.

Equal tee widely used in petroleum chemical industry, oil, natural gas, liquefied gas, fertilizer, power plant, nuclear power, shipbuilding, paper making, pharmacy, food sanitation, urban construction and other industries the establishment and maintenance of engineering. Request for this kind of pipe pressure is higher in industrial, maximum pressure can reach 600 kg, career pipe pressure is low, general is 16 kg. Equal tee is two head diameter, on the other hand, is reducing tee branch pipe diameter with other two pisions called a reducing tee, performance measures are as follows: about equal tee, for example “T3” thereof is outer diameter is 3 inches equal tee. About reducing tee, for example “T4 x 4 x 3.5” four inches for reducing performance with diameter 3. 5 inches of reducing tee. Material of common, such as 10 # # 20 A3Q235A20g20G16MnASTMA234ASTMA105ASTMA403 tee, outside diameter size in 60 “2.5”, from 26 “60” for welding tee, 28-60 mm wall thickness.

In the production of large flange, there were many elements affect the function of large flange, let’s say the rare several elements, the beginning is the annealing temperature, annealing temperature for the primer and template joint at the temperature of the parameter, when 50% of primers and complementary sequence is expressed as the temperature of the double-stranded DNA molecule, it is the main factor affecting the PCR specificity compared. In the form of fantasy, the annealing temperature is low enough, to guaranteeing primers with invalid annealing target sequence, but also high enough, in order to increase nonspecific joint. Proper annealing temperature from 55 ℃ to 70 ℃. Annealing temperature normal setting is lower than 5 ℃) than primers of Tm annealing temperature can reach the required temperature. Large flange disposal common is to use solid solution heat treatment, namely people usually called “annealing”, the scale of temperature for 1040 ~ 1040 ℃ (Japan standard). You can also see hole sees after annealing furnace, annealing the large flange should be incandescent forms, but no present hardening prolapse. Second is to maintain the pressure of gas, in order to avoid presents the micro leakage, gas furnace maintenance shall be surely positive pressure, if be hydrogen gas maintenance, regular requests for more than 20 kbar. Annealing atmosphere: more than ordinary pure hydrogen is taken as the annealing atmosphere, atmosphere best is more than 99.99% purity, if another local is inert gas in the atmosphere, also can lower purity, but relatively means less containing too much oxygen and water vapor. Followed by furnace sealing (shell with steel plate and steel welded together, car by steel and steel plate welding, car after contact with the lining of the soft and sand sealing mechanism to increase the thermal radiation and convection loss, invalid guaranteeing furnace sealing.) , bright annealing furnace should be blocked, with the surrounding air partition; Take hydrogen for maintenance, as long as a vent is (used to extinguish discharge of hydrogen). Reflection method can use rain-water water in each joint crack of annealing furnace, see if I can run gas; It the most easily run gas is in the middle of the annealing furnace into the middle of the steel pipe and out in the middle of the steel pipe, the special easily in the center of the sealing ring wear, often of self-reflection and often change.